Statistics — Page 62
Explore statistical methods, their assumptions, interpretation and limitations.
Research field
Method family
Schalock Quality of Life Model
The Schalock and Verdugo Quality of Life model is a multidimensional framework for conceptualizing and measuring quality of life among people with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Drawing on cross-cultural and empirical work syn...
Scheffé Test
The Scheffé test is a post-hoc multiple comparison procedure that controls the family-wise error rate simultaneously for all possible linear contrasts among group means following a significant ANOVA. Introduced by Henry Scheffé in his landm...
School Effectiveness Modeling
School effectiveness modeling estimates how much, and in what ways, individual schools contribute to student outcomes once differences in what students bring with them are taken into account. Using multilevel (hierarchical) models, it adjus...
Seemingly Unrelated Regression
Seemingly Unrelated Regressions, introduced by Arnold Zellner in 1962, is a system regression method that estimates several linear equations jointly when their error terms are correlated across equations. By exploiting that cross-equation c...
Segmented Assimilation Test
The segmented assimilation test, formalized by Alejandro Portes and Min Zhou in 1993, examines why the children of immigrants follow strikingly different trajectories rather than converging on a single mainstream path. Against the classic a...
Selective Optimization with Compensation Measurement
Selective optimization with compensation (SOC) is a life-span developmental model that explains how people manage the shifting balance of gains and losses across adulthood and old age to maintain functioning and wellbeing. Proposed by Paul...
Self-Monitoring Scale
The Self-Monitoring Scale, introduced by Mark Snyder in 1974, measures the extent to which people observe and control their expressive behavior and self-presentation in response to situational and interpersonal cues. High self-monitors are...
Self-Organized Criticality
Self-Organized Criticality (SOC) is a dynamical systems framework introduced by Per Bak, Chao Tang, and Kurt Wiesenfeld in 1987 to explain how large, dissipative systems spontaneously evolve toward a critical state without external fine-tun...
Semantic Differential
The Semantic Differential is an attitude measurement technique that assesses the connotative meaning (emotional and evaluative associations) of concepts through ratings on multiple bipolar adjective scales. Developed by Osgood, Suci, and Ta...
Sensitivity Analysis for Causality
Sensitivity analysis for causality assesses how robust a causal conclusion is to unobserved confounding. Rather than assuming all confounders are controlled, it asks: how strong would an unmeasured variable need to be to overturn the estima...
Sensitivity Analysis for Unmeasured Confounding
Sensitivity analysis for hidden bias is a family of methods that quantify how strongly an unmeasured confounder would have to operate before it could overturn a causal conclusion drawn from observational data. It was crystallised by Paul Ro...
Sensitivity analysis for causality in education research
Sensitivity analysis for causality in education research tests how robust a quasi-experimental finding is to unmeasured confounding. Rather than assuming all bias has been removed, it quantifies how large a hidden bias would need to be to o...
Sequential Analysis
Sequential analysis is a framework for conducting hypothesis tests with pre-planned interim looks at accumulating data, allowing a study to stop early for efficacy or futility while controlling the overall Type I error rate. The group seque...
Sequential Design
Sequential and group sequential trial designs allow a study to be stopped early — or continued — based on interim analyses conducted as data accumulate. The core framework was formalised by O'Brien and Fleming in 1979 and extended by Lan an...
Sequential Monte Carlo
Sequential Monte Carlo (SMC) is a family of simulation-based algorithms that approximate evolving probability distributions by propagating and reweighting a cloud of weighted random draws called particles. It handles nonlinear, non-Gaussian...
Sequential Monte Carlo with Measurement Error
Sequential Monte Carlo (SMC) with measurement error is a particle-based Bayesian filtering method for tracking hidden states in dynamical systems when observations are corrupted by noise. It propagates a weighted cloud of particles through...
Sequential Monte Carlo with Missing Data
Sequential Monte Carlo (SMC) with missing data extends the standard particle filter to state-space models in which some observations are absent. When an observation is missing at a given time step the update step is simply skipped: particle...
Serious Leisure Inventory and Measure
The Serious Leisure Inventory and Measure (SLIM) is a multidimensional self-report instrument that operationalizes Robert Stebbins's serious leisure perspective for quantitative research. Stebbins defined serious leisure as the systematic p...
Session RPE
Session rate of perceived exertion (sRPE) is a simple, athlete-centered method to quantify training load by combining perceived exertion intensity (RPE, 0-10 scale) with session duration. Introduced by Carl Foster (2001), sRPE avoids the ne...
Shapiro-Wilk test
The Shapiro-Wilk test is a hypothesis test that checks whether a continuous variable was drawn from a normal distribution. It was introduced by Samuel Shapiro and Martin Wilk in 1965 and is regarded as one of the most powerful normality tes...
Shift-Share IV
The shift-share instrumental variable, widely known as the Bartik instrument, is a causal-inference strategy that builds an instrument by interacting national or sector-level shocks (the shifts) with local composition weights (the shares)....
Short Form Measurement Invariance
Short form measurement invariance testing evaluates whether an abbreviated version of a psychological scale measures the same latent construct equivalently across groups or conditions. It applies the hierarchical multigroup confirmatory fac...
Short form Rasch model
The short form Rasch model applies Rasch measurement theory to abbreviated instrument versions. Rather than using all items from a full scale, researchers select a reduced item set and calibrate it under the Rasch model to verify that the s...
Short form construct validity
Short form construct validity is the systematic evaluation of whether an abbreviated version of a psychological scale still measures the same underlying construct as the original full-length instrument. It combines item selection procedures...