Statistics — Page 12
Explore statistical methods, their assumptions, interpretation and limitations.
Research field
Method family
Causal Impact Analysis
Causal Impact Analysis, introduced by Brodersen et al. (2015) at Google, uses Bayesian structural time-series models to estimate what would have happened to an outcome had an intervention never occurred. By constructing a probabilistic coun...
Causal Mediation Analysis
Causal mediation analysis is a counterfactual framework that splits a treatment's total effect into a Natural Direct Effect (NDE) and a Natural Indirect Effect (NIE) that runs through a mediator. The modern general approach was formalised b...
Causal Mediation Analysis in Politics
Causal mediation analysis decomposes the effect of a treatment — often a randomized experimental manipulation, such as a campaign message or an information treatment — into the part transmitted through a specified intermediate variable, the...
Causality in Variance Test
The causality-in-variance test detects whether shocks to one variable cause changes in the conditional variance (volatility) of another variable, distinct from mean-level causality. Introduced by Cheung and Ng (1996), it identifies volatili...
Center of Pressure Posturography
Center of pressure (CoP) posturography measures postural stability by analyzing the movement of the body's center of pressure—the point where the total force of body weight is concentrated—during quiet stance or dynamic balance tasks. Forma...
Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS)
The Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS), developed by Stefan Huber and Odilo Huber and consolidated in their 2012 paper, measures how central the religious meaning system is within an individual's personality. It operationalizes five core...
Chain-Ladder Reserving
Chain-Ladder Reserving is a stochastic actuarial method for estimating outstanding claim liabilities from a run-off triangle of cumulative paid losses. Formalized by Thomas Mack in 1993, it provides distribution-free estimates of reserve am...
Change of Numeraire
Change of numeraire is a mathematical technique for simplifying option pricing by changing the choice of discount factor (numeraire). By selecting a numeraire aligned with the payoff structure, complex problems become simple. The technique...
Characteristics Approach to Population Aging
The characteristics approach reconceptualizes what it means to be 'old' by measuring age through people's characteristics rather than the number of years since birth. Developed by Warren Sanderson and Sergei Scherbov and set out comprehensi...
Chi-Square Power Analysis
Chi-square power analysis is a prospective calculation that determines the minimum sample size required — or the statistical power achievable with a given sample — for chi-square independence tests or goodness-of-fit tests. It rests on Cohe...
Chi-square goodness-of-fit test
The chi-square test of independence is a nonparametric hypothesis test that determines whether two categorical variables are statistically associated or independent of one another. Introduced by Karl Pearson in 1900, it remains the standard...
Chi-square test
The chi-square test of independence is a nonparametric hypothesis test that examines whether two categorical variables are associated by comparing observed and expected frequencies in a cross-tabulation. It rests on the chi-square criterion...
Child-Rearing Authoritarianism Measure
The child-rearing values measure, introduced by Stanley Feldman and Karen Stenner in 1997, gauges an authoritarian predisposition indirectly by asking which qualities respondents most want to instill in children. Each item forces a choice b...
Choice-Based Conjoint
Choice-based conjoint analysis (CBC) measures how consumers value the features of a product by observing the choices they make among competing, attribute-defined profiles rather than by asking them to rate attributes directly. Each responde...
Chow Test
The Chow test, introduced by Gregory Chow in 1960, checks whether the coefficients of a linear regression are the same across two subsamples — that is, whether a structural break occurs at a known point such as a policy change, crisis, or r...
Circular Migration Measurement
Circular migration measurement provides a quantitative grammar for distinguishing migrants who move back and forth across a border from those who settle permanently or return for good. Constant and Zimmermann's 2011 study proposed measuring...
Clark Density Model
The Clark density model is the classic empirical description of how urban population density falls with distance from the city centre, formulated by the economist Colin Clark in 1951. It states that density declines exponentially outward fr...
Clock Drawing Test
The Clock Drawing Test (CDT) is a brief, widely used cognitive screening task in which a patient draws the face of a clock, places the numbers, and sets the hands to a specified time, most commonly ten past eleven. Despite its simplicity, t...
Cluster Analysis
Cluster analysis is a family of unsupervised multivariate techniques that partition a set of objects or observations into internally homogeneous, mutually distinct groups — clusters — based on measured characteristics, without any prior kno...
Cluster-Robust Standard Errors
Cluster-robust standard errors correct the variance of regression coefficients when observations are correlated within clusters such as schools, hospitals, or regions. The clustered sandwich estimator grew out of Liang & Zeger's (1986) gene...
Co-kriging
Co-kriging is a geostatistical interpolation technique that predicts the spatial distribution of a primary variable by leveraging its spatial cross-correlation with one or more secondary (co-) variables. It extends ordinary kriging to multi...
Coale-Demeny Model Life Tables
The Coale-Demeny regional model life tables are a system of standard age patterns of mortality, distilled from hundreds of empirical life tables into four regional families — North, South, East, and West — each indexed by a mortality level....
Coale-McNeil Marriage Model
The Coale-McNeil model is a parametric description of how first marriages are distributed by age. Ansley Coale and Donald McNeil showed in 1972 that the age pattern of first marriage in widely different populations has a common shape, captu...
Coale-Trussell Model
The Coale-Trussell model is a two-parameter parametric description of the age pattern of marital fertility, introduced by Ansley Coale and James Trussell in 1974. It expresses observed age-specific marital fertility as a standard natural-fe...