Statistics — Page 2
Explore statistical methods, their assumptions, interpretation and limitations.
Research field
Method family
CFA — Scale Validation
Confirmatory factor analysis is a measurement modelling technique that tests whether a hypothesised factor structure — typically derived from theory or an earlier exploratory analysis — fits observed data from a new sample. Developed by Kar...
Candidate Evaluation Model
A candidate evaluation model represents how voters form overall assessments of political candidates as a latent function of perceived traits (competence, leadership, integrity, empathy), partisanship, issue proximity, and affect. It spans t...
Case-Cohort Design
Case-cohort design is an epidemiological study design developed by Prentice (1986) that efficiently combines features of case-control and cohort studies. Researchers enroll an entire cohort, follow it for outcomes, then measure exposures on...
Child-Rearing Authoritarianism Measure
The child-rearing values measure, introduced by Stanley Feldman and Karen Stenner in 1997, gauges an authoritarian predisposition indirectly by asking which qualities respondents most want to instill in children. Each item forces a choice b...
Cognitive Diagnosis Model
Cognitive Diagnosis Models (CDMs) are a family of latent variable models designed to classify examinees according to their mastery of a set of discrete cognitive attributes or skills. The Generalized DINA (G-DINA) framework, introduced by J...
Cognitive Diagnostic Computerized Adaptive Testing
Cognitive Diagnostic Computerized Adaptive Testing (CD-CAT) combines computerized adaptive testing (CAT) with cognitive diagnostic models (CDMs) to efficiently assess students' specific skill profiles. Rather than producing a single overall...
Cognitive Reflection Test
The Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) is a brief measure of cognitive reflection—the ability to override intuitive, reflexive answers in favor of deliberate, analytical reasoning. Participants answer problems that have an intuitive but incorr...
Collective Narcissism Scale
The Collective Narcissism Scale, introduced by Agnieszka Golec de Zavala and colleagues in 2009, measures an emotional investment in an unrealistic belief about an in-group's greatness coupled with a demand that this greatness be recognized...
Computerized Adaptive Test Content Validity
Content validity in computerized adaptive testing (CAT) ensures that an adaptively administered assessment adequately samples the intended content domain despite delivering only a subset of items to each examinee. It integrates classical co...
Computerized Adaptive Test Convergent Validity
Convergent validity assessment for computerized adaptive tests (CATs) examines whether the ability or trait estimates produced by an adaptive algorithm correlate substantially with scores from other measures of the same construct. Because e...
Computerized adaptive test Rasch model
Computerized adaptive testing with the Rasch model selects items in real time based on each examinee's evolving ability estimate, so that every person receives a test precisely calibrated to their proficiency level. The result is a shorter,...
Computerized adaptive test construct validity
Construct validity in computerized adaptive testing evaluates whether the latent trait estimates produced by a CAT instrument genuinely measure the intended psychological or educational construct. Because adaptive algorithms select items in...
Computerized adaptive test discriminant validity
Discriminant validity in computerized adaptive testing (CAT) is the evaluation process confirming that a CAT-administered scale measures its intended construct distinctly from related but conceptually different constructs. Despite the adapt...
Computerized adaptive test item analysis
Computerized adaptive test item analysis evaluates and calibrates items intended for use in adaptive testing environments. Unlike fixed-form analysis, it accounts for the non-random item exposure inherent in adaptive administration, using i...
Computerized adaptive test item response theory
Computerized adaptive testing based on item response theory is a sequential measurement procedure in which a computer algorithm selects successive test items tailored to each examinee's estimated ability level. Drawing on IRT to model item...
Computerized adaptive test measurement invariance
Computerized adaptive test measurement invariance evaluates whether a CAT instrument measures the same latent construct with the same psychometric properties across different groups (e.g., gender, language, clinical vs. community) or time p...
Computerized adaptive test reliability analysis
CAT reliability analysis quantifies measurement precision in computerized adaptive tests where each examinee receives a unique, individually tailored subset of items. Rather than a single classical coefficient, it uses item response theory...
Confirmatory factor analysis
Confirmatory factor analysis tests a researcher-specified factor structure against observed data. Unlike exploratory approaches, the researcher decides in advance which indicators load on which latent factor, and the model is evaluated by h...
Construct Validity
Construct validity is the degree to which a test or scale actually measures the theoretical construct it is intended to measure. Introduced by Cronbach and Meehl in 1955, it is the central validity concern in psychological and educational m...
Content Validity
Content validity is evidence that a measurement instrument adequately samples the full domain of the construct it is intended to measure. It is established through systematic expert review and quantified with indices such as Lawshe's Conten...
Convergent Validity
Convergent validity is the degree to which multiple indicators that are theoretically expected to measure the same construct actually correlate with one another. It is one of the two complementary forms of construct validity identified by C...
DIF Analysis
Differential Item Functioning analysis examines whether examinees from different groups — such as gender, ethnicity, or language background — who have the same underlying ability respond differently to a test item. First formalised by Holla...
DINA Model
The DINA Model (Deterministic Inputs, Noisy Outputs) is a cognitive diagnostic model developed by Junker and Sijtsma (2001) that classifies examinees into latent skill classes based on their item response patterns. DINA assumes a determinis...
DINO Model
The DINO Model (Deterministic Inputs, Noisy Outputs—Disjunctive) is a cognitive diagnostic model that relaxes DINA's conjunctive (AND) skill requirement logic. DINO assumes an examinee only needs to master one of multiple possible skill pat...