Statistics — Page 5
Explore statistical methods, their assumptions, interpretation and limitations.
Research field
Method family
Role Conflict and Ambiguity Scale
The Role Conflict and Ambiguity Scale measures two of the most studied sources of stress at work: receiving incompatible demands (role conflict) and not knowing clearly what is expected of you (role ambiguity). The theoretical foundation co...
SABR Model
The SABR (Stochastic Alpha-Beta-Rho) model is a stochastic volatility framework introduced by Hagan et al. in 2002 for valuing interest rate derivatives. It captures the smile effect in implied volatility through correlated Brownian motions...
Scanner Panel Analysis
Scanner panel analysis models individual households' brand choices using the purchase histories captured by UPC scanner panels, in which the same households are tracked occasion by occasion with the brand chosen and the prices and promotion...
Slutsky Equation
The Slutsky equation, derived by Russian economist Eugen Slutsky in 1915, is a fundamental identity in microeconomics that decomposes the total change in demand for a good into two effects: the substitution effect and the income effect. For...
Solow Residual
The Solow residual is the portion of output growth that is not explained by the growth of measured inputs — capital and labour — after each input's growth is weighted by its share of national income. Introduced by Robert Solow in 1957, it i...
Stochastic Frontier Firm Efficiency Analysis
Stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) estimates how far a firm falls short of the best attainable output for its inputs while explicitly separating that shortfall from random noise. Aigner, Lovell and Schmidt's 1977 model introduced the defini...
Stochastic Frontier Model
The stochastic frontier model is a parametric method for estimating productive efficiency that separates a producer's shortfall from best practice into two parts: genuine inefficiency and random noise. Introduced independently in 1977 by Ai...
Stochastic Volatility Model
The stochastic volatility model is a continuous-time option-pricing and risk framework in which volatility follows its own random process rather than staying constant. The Heston model, introduced by Steven Heston in 1993, gives the varianc...
Tail Risk Measures
Tail risk measures quantify the loss distribution beyond Value-at-Risk (VaR). Expected Shortfall — the expected loss given that VaR is exceeded — is the leading coherent risk measure, formalised by Artzner, Delbaen, Eber and Heath (1999) an...
Team Psychological Safety Measurement
Team psychological safety is the shared belief among members of a team that the team is safe for interpersonal risk-taking — that one can speak up, ask questions, admit mistakes, and propose ideas without fear of being embarrassed, rejected...
Three-Component Model of Organizational Commitment
The Three-Component Model (TCM) of organizational commitment, developed by John Meyer and Natalie Allen, is the dominant framework for understanding why employees stay with and bind themselves to their organizations. Its central claim is th...
Tobin's Q Firm Value Analysis
Tobin's q is the ratio of a firm's market value to the replacement cost of its assets, and it serves in strategy and industrial organization as a forward-looking measure of value creation and economic rent. A q above one means the market va...
Total Factor Productivity
Total factor productivity (TFP), also called multifactor productivity, measures how much output an economic unit produces from a given bundle of all its inputs taken together — capital, labour, and often intermediate materials. It is the ef...
Tourism Almost Ideal Demand System
The Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS), introduced by Angus Deaton and John Muellbauer in 1980, is a system of demand equations grounded in consumer theory that models how a budget is allocated across competing goods through their expenditur...
Tourism CGE Modeling
Tourism computable general equilibrium (CGE) modeling simulates how a change in tourism — a surge in inbound visitors, a major event, a new tax, or a demand collapse — ripples through an entire economy when prices, wages, exchange rates, an...
Tourism Demand Elasticity Modeling
Tourism demand elasticity modeling estimates how responsive tourist demand is to changes in its key drivers, above all source-market income and the price of travel. The income elasticity measures the percentage change in demand for a one-pe...
Tourism Demand Forecasting
Tourism demand forecasting predicts future tourist arrivals, overnight stays, or expenditure from historical data, supporting planning by destinations, airlines, hotels, and policymakers. The field spans two broad model families. Time-serie...
Tourism Input-Output Analysis
Tourism input-output analysis applies Wassily Leontief's inter-industry framework to measure how tourist spending reverberates through an entire economy. An input-output table records, sector by sector, how much each industry buys from ever...
Tourism Multiplier Analysis
Tourism multiplier analysis quantifies how much total economic activity a destination gains from each unit of tourist spending, once that spending circulates through the local economy. When a visitor pays for a hotel room, the money does no...
Tourism Product Conjoint Analysis
Tourism product conjoint analysis is a decompositional preference-measurement technique that breaks travellers' overall judgments of holiday packages into the separate contributions, or part-worths, of each package attribute. Building on th...
Tourism Seasonality Index
Tourism seasonality measurement summarizes how unevenly tourism demand is distributed across the year. Destinations rarely receive visitors at a constant rate; arrivals, overnight stays, and revenue cluster in peak months and thin out in th...
VaR Backtesting
VaR backtesting is a family of statistical tests that validate a risk model by comparing its Value-at-Risk forecasts against realised losses. It builds on Kupiec's (1995) unconditional coverage test, Christoffersen's (1998) conditional cove...
Value at Risk
Value at Risk is a financial risk measure that estimates the maximum loss a position or portfolio could suffer over a fixed holding period at a given confidence level. It is the standard benchmark in risk management and regulatory capital c...
Wavelet Financial Analysis
Wavelet financial analysis decomposes a financial time series into different frequency bands (time scales) so short- and long-term relationships can be studied at the same time. Drawing on the treatments of Gençay, Selçuk and Whitcher (2001...