Statistics — Page 10
Explore statistical methods, their assumptions, interpretation and limitations.
Research field
Method family
Breitung Test
The Breitung test, introduced by Jörg Breitung in 2000, is a nonparametric panel unit-root test designed to assess whether all cross-sectional units in a balanced panel share a common unit root. Unlike competing first-generation tests, it a...
Breusch-Godfrey Test
The Breusch-Godfrey test is a Lagrange-multiplier test for serial correlation in regression residuals, developed independently by Trevor Breusch (1978) and Leslie Godfrey (1978). Unlike the Durbin-Watson test, it detects autocorrelation up...
Breusch-Pagan Test
The Breusch-Pagan test, introduced by Trevor Breusch and Adrian Pagan in 1979, is a Lagrange-multiplier test for heteroskedasticity — the condition where the variance of a regression's errors changes with the explanatory variables. It works...
Brunner-Munzel Test
The Brunner-Munzel test is a nonparametric two-sample hypothesis test that estimates the probabilistic superiority index P(X < Y) — the probability that a randomly selected observation from one group exceeds a randomly selected observation...
CADF Test
The Cross-sectionally Augmented Dickey-Fuller (CADF) test, introduced by Pesaran (2007), is a second-generation panel unit-root test designed to handle cross-sectional dependence among panel units. Unlike first-generation panel unit-root te...
CAPM
The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), developed by William Sharpe and John Lintner in the mid-1960s, links the expected return of an asset to its systematic risk, measured by beta. It states that in equilibrium investors are rewarded only...
CAT Cronbach's Alpha
Cronbach's alpha applied to computerized adaptive test (CAT) data estimates internal consistency reliability under the special condition that different examinees receive different subsets of items. Because the classic formula assumes every...
CAT Test-Retest Reliability
Computerized adaptive test (CAT) test-retest reliability quantifies the consistency of ability estimates obtained when the same examinees complete a CAT on two separate occasions. Because adaptive algorithms tailor each examinee's item set...
CCEMG Estimator
The Common Correlated Effects Mean Group estimator, introduced by Pesaran in 2006, is a heterogeneous panel-data estimator that controls for cross-sectional dependence by approximating unobserved common factors with the cross-section averag...
CFA
Confirmatory factor analysis tests whether a researcher-specified factor structure fits the observed data. Formalised by Karl Jöreskog in 1969, it is the measurement-model step within structural equation modelling and is the standard tool f...
CFA — Scale Validation
Confirmatory factor analysis is a measurement modelling technique that tests whether a hypothesised factor structure — typically derived from theory or an earlier exploratory analysis — fits observed data from a new sample. Developed by Kar...
CGE Model
A Computable General Equilibrium model is a numerical equilibrium framework that represents the input-output relationships among all sectors, factors of production, households, and foreign trade in an economy through a Social Accounting Mat...
CIPS Test
The CIPS test, introduced by Pesaran (2007), is a second-generation panel unit-root test designed for panels in which the cross-sectional units share unobserved common factors that induce cross-section dependence. By augmenting each individ...
CS-ARDL
CS-ARDL (Cross-Sectional ARDL) applies the ARDL framework to panel data while explicitly accounting for cross-sectional dependence—correlation of shocks and relationships across units (countries, firms, regions). Introduced by Pesaran and c...
CS-DL
CS-DL (Cross-Sectional Distributed Lag) is a simplified dynamic panel model regressing outcomes on current and lagged explanatory variables without explicit autoregressive terms, while accounting for cross-sectional dependence. Built on Pes...
CS-NARDL
CS-NARDL extends the nonlinear autoregressive distributed lag (NARDL) model to panel data, capturing asymmetric long-run and short-run relationships where positive and negative changes in explanatory variables have differential effects. Int...
CUSUM Test
The CUSUM (Cumulative Sum) and CUSUMSQ (Cumulative Sum of Squares) tests, introduced by Brown, Durbin, and Evans (1975), assess whether the coefficients of a linear regression model remain constant over time. They are standard tools in econ...
Candidate Evaluation Model
A candidate evaluation model represents how voters form overall assessments of political candidates as a latent function of perceived traits (competence, leadership, integrity, empathy), partisanship, issue proximity, and affect. It spans t...
Canonical Correlation Analysis
Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) is a multivariate statistical method that identifies pairs of linear combinations — one from each of two variable sets — such that the correlation between each pair is maximised. Introduced by Harold Hot...
Capital Mobility Analysis
Capital mobility analysis studies how the international mobility of capital constrains — or fails to constrain — national economic policy. Robert Mundell's 1963 work established the open-economy trilemma: a country cannot simultaneously mai...
Causal Impact Analysis
Causal Impact Analysis, introduced by Brodersen et al. (2015) at Google, uses Bayesian structural time-series models to estimate what would have happened to an outcome had an intervention never occurred. By constructing a probabilistic coun...
Causality in Variance Test
The causality-in-variance test detects whether shocks to one variable cause changes in the conditional variance (volatility) of another variable, distinct from mean-level causality. Introduced by Cheung and Ng (1996), it identifies volatili...
Chain-Ladder Reserving
Chain-Ladder Reserving is a stochastic actuarial method for estimating outstanding claim liabilities from a run-off triangle of cumulative paid losses. Formalized by Thomas Mack in 1993, it provides distribution-free estimates of reserve am...
Change of Numeraire
Change of numeraire is a mathematical technique for simplifying option pricing by changing the choice of discount factor (numeraire). By selecting a numeraire aligned with the payoff structure, complex problems become simple. The technique...